Mitochondria play an important role in cancer through energy production, signal transmission and quality control. As early as , Warburg suggested that cancers would maintain high glycolytic capacity in the presence of oxygen, which called aerobic glycolysis, and mitochondria were thought to be mere bystanders of cancer progression , and then researchers gradually found out that mitochondria exert the vital effects on tumor metabolism, calcium homeostasis and control redox, oncogenic signaling, and cell death, besides supplying energy, which is closely associated with malignant tumor progression 2 , In addition, mitochondrial function can be regulated by hypoxia tumor exosomes.
Park et al. Normal mammary epithelial cell treated with EVs derived from hypoxic human breast cancer cells activates Ser phosphorylation of DRP1 and increases the expression of MFN1 and MFN2 with mitochondria, and stimulates mitochondrial fission and fusion events, which is positively correlated with cell migration Also, Clement et al.
Resistant breast cancer cells derived EVs transported Hsp70 into mitochondria, enhancing adriamycin resistance Moreover, exosomes regulate multiple malignant changes by reprogramming of mitochondrial metabolism via shuttling metabolic related substances , , , , thus preventing EVs from transporting cargo might be an effective strategy for regulating mitochondria and cancer metastasis and progression.
In this review, we summarized the changes of mitochondria under hypoxia, and the role of mitochondria as signal organelles in regulating cellular phenotypic differentiation, inflammation and death. Mitochondria can maintain a stable state under hypoxia through mitochondrial quality control mechanism, such as mitochondrial metabolic homeostasis, mitophagy, mitochondrial fission and fusion, EVs, MDVs, as well as mitochondrial transfer via multiple pathways.
Mitochondrial function could be regulated indirectly by EVs via the delivery of contents under hypoxia, facilitating tumor progression and ischemic damage. The delivery of mitochondria or mtDNA via EVs between cells under stress causes inflammatory response in the recipient cells. In addition, EVs derived from MSCs and some normal cells have a protective effect on mitochondria of recipient cells.
Drugs have been used in tumors and metabolic diseases by regulating mitochondrial biosynthesis and metabolism, but there still are lack of clinical studies on EVs regulate mitochondrial function. Although researchers have shown that EVs play an important role in the regulation of mitochondria, the specific substances contained in EV and whether these substances enter directly into the mitochondria of recipient cells are still unclear.
Exosomes and microvesicles can be distinguished because of their different positions of origin and sizes, and their biogenetic mechanisms are similar but also different. And it is unclear whether their roles in the regulation of mitochondria are also different Better tracking models, monitoring methods and isolation techniques are the basis for further research.
Anyway, this review will provide ideas for the research on the intervention of mitochondrial function through EVs. Fuhrmann, D.
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Zhang, W. HIFmediated production of exosomes during hypoxia is protective in renal tubular cells. Article Google Scholar. Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in substances from outside of the cell by engulfing them in a vesicle. These can include things like nutrients to support the cell or pathogens that immune cells engulf and destroy.
Endocytosis occurs when a portion of the cell membrane folds in on itself, encircling extracellular fluid and various molecules or microorganisms. The resulting vesicle breaks off and is transported within the cell. Endocytosis serves many purposes, including:. There are two types of endocytosis: phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Phagocytosis Phagocytosis, also known as cell eating, is the process by which cells internalize large particles or cells, like damaged cells and bacteria. Within the human body, and in other mammals, phagocytosis is how immune cells engulf and destroy dangerous microorganisms or toxic compounds.
Macrophages and neutrophils, types of white blood cells, are the two primary phagocytes. These white blood cells are responsible for clearing out aged and damaged cells, as well as disposing of infectious microorganisms. Pinocytosis Pinocytosis, also known as cell drinking, is common in plant and animal cells. During pinocytosis, the cell takes in substances from the extracellular fluid that it needs to function.
These include things like water and nutrients. Right image shows a digitally zoomed area of exosome. The read count of each kb bin was normalized to RPKM and corrected by the mappability c. Note that although exosomes are formed in the cytoplasm, damaged nuclear DNA is known to move into the cytoplasm 30 , 46 , These results led us to propose that exosome secretion prevents the aberrant activation of DDR pathways, by excreting harmful cytoplasmic DNA of nuclear origin from the cells.
Pre-senescent TIG-3 cells were infected with retrovirus encoding flag-tagged Dnase2a lanes 4—6 or empty vector lanes 1—3. These observations then raised the question of how the cytoplasmic accumulation of nuclear DNA provokes the DDR in normal human cells. These findings prompted us to examine if the inhibition of exosome secretion provokes the DDR, through the activation of the innate immune response by the cytoplasmic accumulation of nuclear DNA in normal human cells.
Taken together, although other mechanisms may also be involved, the simplest explanation of our data is that exosome secretion preserves cellular homeostasis by blocking the aberrant activation of the innate immune response via preventing the cytoplasmic accumulation of harmful nuclear DNA, at least to some extent in normal human cells.
It should also be noted that, as seen in murine fibroblasts Supplementary Fig. At least cells were scored per group c. Pre-senescent TIG-3 cells were transfected with two different sets of validated siRNA oligos indicated at the top of the panel for three times at 2 day intervals. Tubulin was used as a loading control b. The histograms indicate the percentage of nuclei that contain more than 3 foci positive for 53BP1 staining. At least cells were scored per group.
Finally, to further clarify the biological significance of our findings, we analysed whether exosome secretion could also expel exogenous DNA, such as viral DNA, from cells. To this end, HDFs were infected with a recombinant adenovirus encoding green fluorescent protein GFP , with or without the inhibition of exosome secretion Fig. Indeed, the adenoviral DNA was excreted from the infected cells by exosomes Fig.
Interestingly, the levels of virally encoded protein expression were strikingly increased when exosome secretion was inhibited, as judged by the GFP expression levels Fig. We thus next tested if this machinery functions in preventing virus production in infected cells. Indeed, the inhibition of exosome secretion resulted in a dramatic increase in the production of infectious adenovirus in HEK cells Fig. Collectively, these results revealed an additional mechanism for the antiviral activity of exosomes 40 , further illustrating the biological significance of the exosome-mediated removal of harmful DNA from cells.
These cells were then subjected to western blotting using antibodies shown right g , NanoSight analysis NTA and western blotting against canonical exosome markers for quantitative measurement of isolated exosome particles h or to titration of generated Ad-GFP i.
The histograms indicate the virus titre i. The exosome secretion eliminates harmful cytoplasmic DNA from cells. This event provokes the innate immune response, such as type I IFN pathway, leading to the elevation of the intracellular levels of ROS.
In turn, this activates the DDR in normal human cells. This machinery may also play keys role in preventing viral hijacking of host cells by excreting viral DNA from cells. Exosome secretion had initially been proposed as a mechanism to maintain cellular homeostasis, by removing excess or obsolete molecules from cells 18 , However, emerging evidence has revealed that the secretion of exosomes also plays important roles in mediating cell-to-cell communication, by activating various signalling pathways in cells with which they fuse and interact 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , Despite considerable progress in understanding how cell-to-cell communication is implemented by exosomes 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 36 , 37 , far less is known about how exosome secretion maintains cellular homeostasis in exosome-secreting cells.
Although other mechanisms may also be involved, the simplest explanation of our data is that exosome secretion preserves cellular homeostasis by blocking the aberrant activation of the DDR via preventing the cytoplasmic accumulation of harmful nuclear DNA, at least to some extent in normal cells see model in Fig. This mechanism appears to become more important in senescent cells, presumably because nuclear DNA tends to accumulate in the cytoplasm in senescent cells 47 see also Supplementary Fig.
However, neither Alix nor Rab27a nor nSMase functions exclusively in exosome secretion 34 , 35 , For example, Alix is known to play key roles in cytokinetic abscission Thus, it is possible that additional mechanisms may also be involved in the activation of the DDR pathway in our experimental setting.
Nevertheless, we observed exactly the same effects when we blocked the functions of these proteins Figs 1 and 2 , Supplementary Figs 2 and 3 and other proteins Tsg ref. Moreover, we did not see substantial increase in the frequency of multinucleate cells, a sign of cytokinetic failure, in HDFs with Alix depletion Supplementary Fig. Furthermore, the purified exosomes contained genomic DNA fragments Fig.
Thus, although we cannot yet completely rule out the possibility that additional mechanism s may also be involved, it is most likely that exosome secretion maintains cellular homeostasis by excreting harmful cytoplasmic DNA, at least to some extent, in normal cells. It is also worth noting that neither apoptosis nor necrosis was observed in control pre-senescent HDFs Fig. Collectively, these results indicate that the DDR provoked by the blockage of exosome secretion is not simply a consequence of the uptake of apoptotic DNA fragments through the endocytosis of apoptotic bodies in HDFs.
It has been shown that the deficiency of Dnase2a leads to accumulation of damaged self DNA and induction of pro-inflammatory cytokine pathways in murine cells These notions, in conjunction with a very recent observation that prevention of autophagy-lysosome fusion increases exosome secretion 54 , imply that exosome secretion and autophagy may act in a complementary manner to remove pro-inflammatory DNA from cells see model in Fig.
The obvious remaining questions are the origins of the exosomal DNAs and how are they generated. Notably, cells in G0 phase of the cell-cycle are more resistant to the inhibition of exosome secretion, as compared to those in the proliferating phase in pre-senescent HDFs Supplementary Fig.
Thus, it is very likely that exosomal DNA fragments are generated by the conservative homologous recombination 55 that occurs preferentially in the late S, G2 and M phases of the cell-cycle in pre-senescent cells. These observations also suggest that the cell-cycle status may determine whether the inhibition of exosome secretion in pre-senescent cells drives the cells into apoptosis or senescence-like cell-cycle arrest.
However, because senescent cells are non-proliferative, exosomal DNA fragments are likely to be generated by different mechanism s in these cells. This idea is somewhat consistent with recent observations that damaged nuclear DNA tends to move into the cytoplasm 30 , 46 , It is also worth mentioning that at least a certain proportion of the exosomal DNA was bound to histones Supplementary Fig.
Thus, it is tempting to speculate that nuclear DNA may be loaded into exosomes through histones. In summary, while the precise mechanisms underlying the nuclear DNA loading into exosomes require further clarification, our results support a model in which exosome secretion maintains cellular homeostasis by removing harmful cytoplasmic DNA from cells, at least to some extent, in certain types of normal cells see model in Fig.
These results reveal an unexpected role of exosome secretion, and provide new insights into the maintenance of cellular homeostasis in normal cells, opening up new possibilities for its control.
For retroviral infection, TIG-3 cells were rendered sensitive to infection by ecotropic retroviruses 5. After puromycin selection, pools of drug-resistant cells were analysed 7 days after infection. We have confirmed the absence of mycoplasma contamination in our tissue culture cells. The number of cells in each grid was counted every day, and the relative number of cells was calculated based on an adjusted cell number at day 1 set at 1. For sucrose density-gradient separation, purified exosome fractions were further subjected to sucrose density-gradient centrifugation In brief, 0.
Ten fractions with equal volumes 3. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan. The washed pellet was resuspended in 0. The deep sequencing analysis was performed as previously described Possible PCR duplicates were removed using samtools. We divided each chromosome into non-overlapping kb bins and calculated the number of mapped reads per kilo base per million reads RPKM for each bin. To correct a mappability bias, all possible mer sequences of the reference genome were mapped back in the same manner as the sequenced reads and the RPKM value was divided by the fraction of mappable bases for each bin.
The samples were freeze substituted with 0. Fluorescence images were observed and photographed using an immunofluorescence microscope Carl Zeiss 14 , The sequences of the siRNA oligos were as follows. Rab27a ref. Rab27b ref. Tsg ref. Knockdown efficiency was confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR. To generate siRNA-resistant Alix and Rab27a mutants, seven- or six-point mutations, which do not change the encoded amino acids, were introduced into the nucleotide target regions of the Alix and Rab27a cDNAs, using a Quick Change Site-directed Mutagenesis kit Stratagene.
Full immunoblots are provided in Supplementary Fig. TIG-3 cells were transfected with siRNA oligo and the next day cells were infected with recombinant adenovirus Ad5 encoding GFP 68 , at a multiplicity of infection of Hydrodynamics-based transfection was performed using day-old male ICR mice Forty-eight hours later, mice transfected with luciferase were subjected to in vivo bioluminescent imaging 62 , 70 for confirmation of the transfection efficiency, and mice transfected with shRNA were euthanized and the liver sections were subjected to exosome collection, western blotting or immunofluorescence analysis.
The sample size used in this study was determined based on the expense of data collection, and the requirement for sufficient statistical significance. Randomisation and blinding were not used in this study. Mice with body weights between All animal care was performed according to the protocols approved by the Committee for the Use and Care of Experimental Animals of the Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research. The authors declare that all other data are available from the authors upon request.
How to cite this article: Takahashi, A. Exosomes maintain cellular homeostasis by excreting harmful DNA from cells. Collado, M. Senescence in tumours: evidence from mice and humans. Cancer 10 , 51—57 Receptor-mediated endocytosis is endocytosis by a portion of the cell membrane that contains many receptors that are specific for a certain substance. Iron, a required component of hemoglobin, is endocytosed by red blood cells in this way. Iron is bound to a protein called transferrin in the blood.
Specific transferrin receptors on red blood cell surfaces bind the iron-transferrin molecules, and the cell endocytoses the receptor-ligand complexes. Many cells manufacture substances that must be secreted, like a factory manufacturing a product for export. These substances are typically packaged into membrane-bound vesicles within the cell. When the vesicle membrane fuses with the cell membrane, the vesicle releases it contents into the interstitial fluid. The vesicle membrane then becomes part of the cell membrane.
Cells of the stomach and pancreas produce and secrete digestive enzymes through exocytosis Figure 8. Endocrine cells produce and secrete hormones that are sent throughout the body, and certain immune cells produce and secrete large amounts of histamine, a chemical important for immune responses. To ensure that you understand the material in this chapter, you should review the meanings of the bold terms in the following summary and ask yourself how they relate to the topics in the chapter.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture. The major component is the solvent , while the minor component is the solute. Solutions can have any phase; for example, an alloy is a solid solution. Solutes are soluble or insoluble , meaning they dissolve or do not dissolve in a particular solvent.
The terms miscible and immiscible , instead of soluble and insoluble, are used for liquid solutes and solvents.
The statement like dissolves like is a useful guide to predicting whether a solute will dissolve in a given solvent. Dissolving occurs by solvation , the process in which particles of a solvent surround the individual particles of a solute, separating them to make a solution.
For water solutions, the word hydration is used. If the solute is molecular, it dissolves into individual molecules. If the solute is ionic, the individual ions separate from each other, forming a solution that conducts electricity. Such solutions are called electrolytes. If the dissociation of ions is complete, the solution is a strong electrolyte. If the dissociation is only partial, the solution is a weak electrolyte.
Solutions of molecules do not conduct electricity and are called nonelectrolytes. The amount of solute in a solution is represented by the concentration of the solution. The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent is called the solubility of the solute. Such solutions are saturated. Solutions that have less than the maximum amount are unsaturated. Most solutions are unsaturated, and there are various ways of stating their concentrations.
Parts per million ppm and parts per billion ppb are used to describe very small concentrations of a solute. Molarity , defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution, is a common concentration unit in the chemistry laboratory.
Equivalents express concentrations in terms of moles of charge on ions. When a solution is diluted, we use the fact that the amount of solute remains constant to be able to determine the volume or concentration of the final diluted solution.
Solutions of known concentration can be prepared either by dissolving a known mass of solute in a solvent and diluting to a desired final volume or by diluting the appropriate volume of a more concentrated solution a stock solution to the desired final volume.
The cell membrane provides a barrier around the cell, separating its internal components from the extracellular environment.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing only a limited number of materials to diffuse through its lipid bilayer.
All materials that cross the membrane do so using passive non energy-requiring or active energy-requiring transport processes. During passive transport, materials move by simple diffusion or by facilitated diffusion through the membrane, down their concentration gradient.
Water passes through the membrane in a diffusion process called osmosis. During active transport, energy is expended to assist material movement across the membrane in a direction against their concentration gradient. Active transport may take place with the help of protein pumps or through the use of vesicles. What materials can easily diffuse through the lipid bilayer, and why? Why is receptor-mediated endocytosis said to be more selective than phagocytosis or pinocytosis?
What do osmosis, diffusion, filtration, and the movement of ions away from like charge all have in common? In what way do they differ? Which of the representations best corresponds to a 1 M aqueous solution of each compound? Justify your answers. Which of the representations shown in Problem 1 best corresponds to a 1 M aqueous solution of each compound?
Would you expect a 1. Why or why not? An alternative way to define the concentration of a solution is molality , abbreviated m. Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 kg of solvent. How is this different from molarity? Would you expect a 1 M solution of sucrose to be more or less concentrated than a 1 m solution of sucrose?
Explain your answer. What are the advantages of using solutions for quantitative calculations? If the amount of a substance required for a reaction is too small to be weighed accurately, the use of a solution of the substance, in which the solute is dispersed in a much larger mass of solvent, allows chemists to measure the quantity of the substance more accurately.
Calculate the number of grams of solute in 1. If all solutions contain the same solute, which solution contains the greater mass of solute? Complete the following table for mL of solution. What is the concentration of each species present in the following aqueous solutions? What is the molar concentration of each solution?
Give the concentration of each reactant in the following equations, assuming An experiment required A stock solution of Na 2 CrO 4 containing Describe how to prepare Calcium hypochlorite [Ca OCl 2 ] is an effective disinfectant for clothing and bedding.
If a solution has a Ca OCl 2 concentration of 3. Phenol C 6 H 5 OH is often used as an antiseptic in mouthwashes and throat lozenges. If a mouthwash has a phenol concentration of 1. If a tablet containing mg of caffeine C 8 H 10 N 4 O 2 is dissolved in water to give A certain drug label carries instructions to add If a patient has a prescribed dose of The major component of the solution is called the solvent , and the minor component s are called the solute.
When a gaseous or solid material dissolves in a liquid, the gas or solid material is called the solute.
When two liquids dissolve in each other, the major component is called the solvent and the minor component is called the solute. Many chemical reactions are carried out in solutions, and solutions are also closely related to our everyday lives. The air we breathe, the liquids we drink, and the fluids in our body are all solutions.
Furthermore, we are surrounded by solutions such as the air and waters in rivers, lakes and oceans. Back to the Top Types of Solutions Material exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Solutions also exist in all these states: Gaseous mixtures are usually homogeneous and are commonly gas-gas solutions. For quantitative treatment of this type of solutions, we will devote a unit to gases.
The atmosphere is a gaseous solution that consists of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water, methane, and some other minor components. Some of these components, such as water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide may vary in concentration in different locations on the Earth depending on factors such as temperature and altitude. When molecules of gas, solid or liquid are dispersed and mixed with those of liquid, the homogeneous uniform states are called liquid solutions.
Solids, liquids and gases dissolve in a liquid solvent to form liquid solutions. In this chapter, most of the chemistry that we will discuss occurs in liquid solutions where water is the solvent. Many alloys, ceramics, and polymer blends are solid solutions. Within a certain range, copper and zinc dissolve in each other and harden to give solid solutions called brass. Silver, gold, and copper form many different alloys with unique colors and appearances.
Alloys and other solid solutions are important in the world of materials chemistry. For example: In special circumstances, a solution may be supersaturated. Asked for: amount of solute in moles Strategy: 1 Rearrange the equation above to solve for the desired unit, in this case for moles. Solution: 1 Rearrange the equation above to solve for moles. Example Molarity Calculation The solution in Figure 7. Given: mass of solute and volume of solution Asked for: concentration M Strategy: 1.
To calculate Molarity, we need to express: the mass in the form of moles the volume in the form of Liters Plug both into the equation above and calculate Solution: Converting the mass into moles. Convert the volume into Liters 3. Plug values into the Molarity equation:.
Example of Dilution Calculations What volume of a 3.
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